![]() ![]() The antibodies will control and fight the infection, giving time for the body to produce its own antibodies.The antibodies are injected directly into the person after a possible rabies infection.Monoclonal antibodies are produced using the method described in 11.1.5.If the woman is not pregnant, no HCG will be present in her blood, and therefore there will be no color change.When the mixture is introduced into a blood sample of a woman that is pregnant, theantibodies will bind to the HCG in the blood, causing a change in color.HCG Antibodies are combined with color-changing enzymes.Monoclonal antibodies can be produced by injecting a lab animal with HCG, as it recognizes this as antigen.Human chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG) is produced by an embryo in early pregnancy.People with blood type O just have the basic antigen sequence that all blood cells have and are therefore not attacked by A or B antibodies therefore, blood type O is known as the universal donor (O negative has no Rhesus factor).If they get a transfusion with blood type B, their immune system will attack and destroy the foreign blood cells with the B-antigen on the surface For example, someone with blood type A (antigen A on the surface) contains anti-B antibodies in their plasma.This is followed by the destruction of the RBC (hemolysis).A blood transfusion given to an individual with the wrong blood type can stimulate an immune response called agglutination (clumping or clotting of the blood cells).Rhesus (Rh) is another antigen that can be present on the surface of the blood cells, being either Rh positive (has antigen) or Rh negative (doesn’t have antigen).Blood groups such as A, B, AB and O are identified by cell surface antigens.There are four major blood groups determined by the presence or absence of two antigens – A and B – on the surface of red blood cells: Since some antigens can trigger a patient's immune system to attack the transfused blood, safe blood transfusions depend on careful blood typing and cross-matching. Neutralisation of viruses and bacteria – Antibodies can bind to the surface of viruses, preventing them from entering host cells.īlood types are determined by the presence or absence of certain antigens – substances that can trigger an immune response if they are foreign to the body.Antibodies bound to the surface of a pathogen activate a complement cascade which leads to the formation of a “membrane attack complex” that forms a pore in the membrane of the pathogen allowing water and ions to enter into the cell, causing the cell to lyse. Complement activation – The complement system is a collection of proteins which ultimately lead to the perforation of the membranes of pathogens.Neutralisatio n of toxins – Antibodies bind to toxins produced by pathogens in the blood plasma preventing them from affecting susceptible cells.Opsonisation – Antibodies make pathogens recognizable by binding to them and linking them to phagocytes. ![]() The large agglutinated mass can be filtered by the lymphatic system and then phagocytised. ![]() These clumped masses of pathogens are then easily ingested and destroyed by phagocytes.
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